INTRODUCTION:

Solanum indicum L., (syn. Solanum violaceum Ortega; Solanum anguivi Lam.) is an important medicinal plant in Indian systems of medicine such as Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani. It is an important ingredient of dasamoola (a group of ten root drugs) group of plants used in Ayurveda and Siddha system of medicine and is used in vitiated conditions of vata, pita and kapha and cures vomiting, heart diseases, poisonous affections, skin diseases, ulcers difficult breathing, abdominal pain, cough and dyspepsia. Roots are bitter and pungent. it removes bad taste in the month and want of taste for food¹.

Root is the major officinal part, but fruits and leaves occasionally whole plant are used. Root is an important ingredient in about 68 ayurvedic formulations. It is used separately or as an ingredient of dasamoola group of plants. Some of the important formulations in which it is used are Amritharishtam, Gandha Taila, Balajeerakadi Kashaya, Manasamithra Vataka, Pippalyadi Gridha, Rajanyadi Choorna, Vidaryadi Gridha etc.

Solanum indicum L.,

Plant is a much branched, common, very prickly under shrub 0.3 -1. m in height, leaves simple large ovate, sub-entire, sinuate or lobed, sparsely prickly on both sides, base cordate, often unequal, flowers blue in extra axillary cymes, peduncles stellately hairy and prickly; fruits globose berries, reddish or dark yellow; seeds smooth or minutely pitted^2-7

Vernacular names:

English : Poison berry

Hindi : Banbhantaa, Barhanta, Vanabharata,

Badikateri

Kannada : Vanavrntaki, Ramgulla, Kirugullia,

Heggulla, Gulla

Malayalam: Putirichunda, Cheruchunda

Tamil : Puttiriccuntai, Papparamulli,

Mullamkatti

Telugu : Tella Mulaka, Cittimulaga

Distribution and habitat:

Distributed throughout tropical India, Sreelanka, Malaya, China and Philippinsis. In India it is found all over the tropical parts in waste lands, roadsides, etc. from sea level to about 2,000 ft^7,8.

Therapeutic properties and uses:

The root and fruit are pungent and bitter. According to Ayurvedic systems of medicine they are heating, digestive, astringent to the bowels, anthelmintic, removes foulness of the mouth, beneficial in cardiac troubles, useful in leucoderma, fever, asthma, pain bronchitis, vomiting and pruritus⁷. The roots are useful in vitiated conditions of vata and kapha, odontalgia, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, verminosis, diarrhoea, leprosy, strangury, cough, asthma, fever, skin diseases, respiratory and cardiac disorders, ulcers and poisonous affections^1,8,9. The root is employed in difficult parturition and in tooth ache. It is also used in fevers, worm complaints and colic. It is regarded as expectorant and useful in cough and catarrhal affections. It is prescribed in the case of dysuria and inchuria⁷.

Classical uses:

In traditional systems of medicine such as ayurveda, S. indicum fruits are cooked, spiced and then put into boiled curd and is used in anorexia (Vaidyamanorama). The juice of fruit mixed with honey by local application destroyes alopecia (Vrndhamadhava; Gadanigraha; Sarngadharasamhita). Fruit and root of gunja are pounded with the juice of brhati fruits and rubbed with Datura fruit. It removes allopacia (Vrndhamadhava). Powder of S. indicum fruit and ginger mixed together is blown into the nostril. By this the patient sneezes and regains consciousness (Gadanigraha). Fruit is slightly streamed in water powdered and cooked in ghee. Then it is added with powdered rock salt and taken. It stimulates digestion and alleviates cough (Kalyanakaraka). Brhati fruit is an ingredient in Pipalyadileha (Gadanigraha). Maturing fruit of brhati after removing the seeds is filled with paste of pipali and srotonjana. After a week the paste is taken out and applied to eyes as collyrium. The same procedure is adopted in relation to fruits sigru, indravaruni, patola, kiratatikta, and amalaka for eye diseases (Susrutha-samhita Utharastana). Fumigation with varttakadistroyes maggots in ear (Charaka-samhita Cikitsasthanam). The child who omits breast milk frequently should be given fruit juice of kantakari and brhati mix with panchakola, honey and ghee (Ashtangahridaya Utharastanam). Brhati with butter milk overcomes grahani disorder (SG. 2. 5. 28). Brhati fruit is boiled in alkaline water of kosataki and fried with ghee. It is taken with jaggery to full satisfaction followed by intake of butter milk. It destroys haemorrhoids within a week (VM.5.14.15). The root and the fruit are prescribed in snake bites (Charaka, Vagbhata, Yogaratnakara, Rasaratnakara) and scorpion sting (Charaka, Sushruta and Vagbhata)¹⁰.

Ethnomedical Properties and Uses:

The unripe fruits are cooked and taken with food to expel tapeworms. Unripe fruits are cooked and taken with food to expel tapeworms the tribal communities of Irulas in Hasanur Hills, Southern Western Ghats¹¹. Oraon tribal communities in Latehar district of the state of Jharkhand, who have considerable amount of traditional knowledge of edible weeds from the crop fields and edible wild plants from the forestsand hills are using the fruits of Solanum indicum Linn., for cooking as vegetable after boiling and drained the water¹². Solanum indicum was reported to use in the treatment of gastrointestinal tract disorders when an ethanomedical field survey was conducted in Kutch District, Gujarat, India¹³.

Nutritional value:

The nutritional value of fruits of Solanum indicum was analyzed along with other plant species like Alocacia indica Sch., Asparagus officinalis DC., Chlorophytum comosum Linn., Cordiamyxa Roxb., Eulophia ochreata Lindl., Momordica dioicia Roxb., Portulaca oleracia Linn. by Folin-Ciocalteau micro method^14,15. Results indicated that Solanum indicum has the maximum nutritional value from point of view of fat. Quality of plant oil is better than animal oil, because plants oils have essential fatty acids such as linoleic and linolenic acids and T-3 and T-6fatty acids, therefore, they are useful for body tissues. Solanum indicum has maximum nutritional values from view of point of oil, in comparison with other plants, because the plant has the best oil (fat) from point of view of quality and quantity.

Pharmacognostic studies:

An organographic study including the specialization particularly the morphological features of vessels of S. indicum has been reported by Murthy et al.¹⁶. The trichome characteristics of eleven species belonging to the genus Solanum L. were studied Maximum diversity in the trichome types was observed in Solanum torvum, Solanum nigrum, Solanum melongena, Solanum pubescens, Solanum indicum and Solanum macranthum. Solanum nigrum with herbaceous habit and very small flowers^17,18.

Pharmacognostic studies of leaf of Solanum indicum was carried out by Srividya et al¹⁹. The study revealed the presence of stellate trichome on the leaf surfaces. Comparative pharmacognostic and phytochemical studies of roots of five Solanum species commonly available in the raw drug markets were carried out by studying the micro-morphological, anatomical, physicochemical parameters and chemical comparison by TLC and HPLC studies. The study revealed the that towards the inner and in the middle portion of the cortex, large, solitary or groups of sclerieds are present which is seen elongated in LS and is considered as one of the distinguishing character of root of S. indicum from the available adulterants²⁰. The microscopic studies also revealed the presence black powdery depositions of sandy crystals, throughout the root, sclerieds in the cortical region, phloem fibres towards the periphery and uni to biseriate medullary rays in xylem and phloem as the diagnostic characters of root of S. indicum²¹.

Phytochemical Analyses:

Various phytoconstituents like phytosterols, steroidal glycosides, steroidal glycoalkaloids, Flavonoids and fatty acid have been reported from the plants²². The fruits of the S. indicum have proximate composition crude fibre (8% wet weight), total carbohydrate (40.67% wet weight), crude protein (23.47% wet weight), total ash (22.66% wet weight), crude fat (5.26% wet weight) and caloric value of (303.9 wet weight). Apart from this is also screened for the presence of alkaloids, polyphenols (7.02mg/g), and saponins^23,24. Among the all constituents, the steroidal glycosides and steroidal glycoalkaloids are most commonly found in the plants. The total alkaloids content of the fruit varies from 0.2 to 1.8% while the leaves contain 0.32% of total alkaloids (dry weight basis)²⁵.

Steroidal alkaloids/glycoalkaloids:

The steroidal alkaloids are important class of secondary metabolites, which are of great interest from both ecological and humenhealth perspectives²⁶. Theses alkaloids widely occur in Genus Solanum with the highest concentrations occurring in flowers, sprouts, unripe berries, young leaves or shoots^27,28. The glycoalkaloids consist of two structural components; the first aglycone unit possess the basic steroidal 27-carbon skeleton (cyclopentanophenanthrene) of cholestane with nitrogen incorporated into the F ring, which is amiphiphilic in nature. The second is a hydrophilic glycone unit attached to th 3-OH position (Figure 1). Since nitrogen is inserted into a non-amino acid residue these compounds belong to a subgroup of pseudoalkaloids (or isoprenoid alkaloids). The steroidal glycoalkaloids are generally present in limited two groups based on the aglycone part. One is the spirosolan type for example solasodine (1, Figure 1) and second is the solanidane type, where N connects spirostan rings E and F ring for example solanidine (2, Figure 1)^27,28. S. indicum contained most common steroidal alkaloids/glycoalkaloids viz; solasodine (1), solanidine (2) solasonine (3), solamargine (4) and solanine (5) (figure 1)^{22, 25, 29}.

Some other phytoconstituents:

Apart from steroidal alkaloids other constituents also reported from the plant like carotene, carpesterol, solanocarpone, diosgenin, β-sitosterol, lanosterol, solavetivone, solafuranone, scopoletin N-(p-transcoumaroyl) tyramine, N-trans-feruloyltyramine and indiosides etc^21,23,28,29.

Pharmacological studies:

Hepatoprotactive activity:

Phyllanthus kozhikodianus (whole plant or leaf), P. maderaspatensis (whole plant) and S. indicum (fruit) were screened for their ability to protect rats from paracetamol-induced liver damage. P. maderaspatensis showed marked choleretic activity in anaesthetised normal rats whereas S. indicum (fruit) and P. kozhikodianus showed only marginal activity³⁰ Investigation of hepatoprotective and antioxidant activities of the crude ethanolic extract of Solanum indicum berries were studied³¹. The result revealed that s. indicum berries extract possess sufficient inhibitory on peroxides formation in liniolic acid emulsion system in a dose dependent manner. A marked elevation of serum marker enzyme levels in CCl4 treated rats was observed which was returned to near normal values in the drug treated animals. The result of this study strongly indicated that hepatoprotective effect of the plant extract is possibly related to its marked antioxidant activity.

Anthelmintic activity:

Solanum indicum, showed the most significant results when the crude extracts of leaves were assayed in the laboratory for their nematicidal properties against the plant parasitic nematode, (70-80% mortality)³².

Aantioxidant activity:

Aantioxidant profiling (ascorbic acid, carotenoids and polyphenols and determination of antioxidant capacity (FRAP test and Folin-Ciocalteau assay) were carried out as per the colour changes of Gnagnan berries at different ripening levels³³. The study showed that Ascorbic acid content was similar in green and yellow berries, but significantly lower in red ones. Red berries showed a higher content of carotenoids compared to green and yellow ones. Regarding polyphenols, several phenolic acids and flavonoids were found in all berries. The content of caffeoylquinic acids, caffeic acid, flavonol glycosides and naringenin was higher in red berries, while the content of p-coumaric acid and feruloylquinic acids was similar among the three colours. The FRAP assay increased with the ripening process, whereas total polyphenols were similar among berries. Significant differences were found for the colorimetric indexes among products of different degrees of ripening.

Antioxidant and anthelmintic activity:

The methanol extract of the berries of Solanum indicum were screened antioxidant and also anthelmintic activity³⁴ (Deb,. In vitro DPPH radical scavenging activity using BHT as a standard and anthelmintic activity on Indian earth-worm (Pheretimaposthuma) using Albendazole as a standard of crude MeOH extract of Solanum indicum berries were evaluated. Nine different concentrations (200, 100, 80, 60, 40, 20, 10, 1, 0.5 µg/ml) of MeOH extract were studied for DPPH scavenging activity. The maximum DPPH radical scavenging activity with inhibition was found at the concentration 200 µg/ml and it was 70.007 ± 0.841% as comparable to that of BHT having 95.023 ± 0.091% inhibition at the same concentration. Three concentrations (25, 50, 100 mg/ml) of extract were studied for anthelmintic activity which involved the determination of time of paralysis and time of death of the worms. All the concentration of extracts exhibited significant dose dependent activity.

Antimicrobial activity:

Extracts (with water, petroleum ether, chloroform and ethanol) of dried fruits of Solanum indicum (collected from Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India) showed antibacterial activity against both Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria compared to chloramphenicol. The chloroform and methanolic extracts showed significant activity against both types of bacteria when tested against Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae by disc diffusion method³⁵.

Gavimath³⁶, evaluated the antimicrobial potentials of Solanum indicum against microorganisms using five different solvents like ethanol, methanol, acetone, petroleum ether and water for extraction ofdifferent bioactive constituents from fresh leaves by both hot and cold processes. The result showed that fresh leaves of Solanum indicum showed moderateantibacterial activity when used with ethanol and methanol against Bacillus spp., Corynebacterium diptheriae, Streptococcus spp., Pseudomonas spp. and Salmonella typhimorium.

Anti-inflammation:

In Taiwan, Solanum indicum L. has been used in folk medicine for the treatment of inflammation, toothache, ascites, edema, and wound infection. The plant is rich in solanine, an alkaloidal glycoside. Polyuria and polydipsia were also reported in a man of 43 year old after taking seven doses of concentrated solution of Solanum indicum L. over two weeks. A water deprivation test and a low serum antidiuretic hormone level helped to confirm a diagnosis of central diabetes insipidus. So it was concluded that excessive doses of Solanum indicum L. may cause central diabetes insipidus³⁷.

The extract of fruits of S. indicum was evaluated for its analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and CNS depressant activity³⁸. Statistical analysis was done through one-way ANOVA followed by post hoc Tukey’s multiple comparison tests. Phytochemical screening of MeOH extract revealed the presence offlavonoids, steroid, tannin, glycosides and saponins among other constituents. The main findings depicted that the crude MeOH extract of the dried fruits of Solanum indicum Linn. Exhibited statistically significant analgesic (P ≤ 0.05), antipyretic (P ≤ 0.05), analgesic (P ≤ 0.05) and CNS depressant activity (P ≤ 0.05) on the established animal models.

Anti-microbial studies of Solanum indicum leaves was carried out by Srividya et al.¹⁹. The result showed that ethanolic extract of leaves Solanum indicum showed antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli where as chloroform extract, acetone extract and ethanol showed anti bacterial against pseudomonas. The aqueous extract did not show any anti microbial activity towards the tested organism. None of the extract showed anti fungal activity.

Toxicity Study:

Preliminary phytochemical screening and pharmacological evaluation of the dried fruit extract of Solanum indicum L. on experimental animal models of a variety of ailments viz. pain, fever, inflammation and CNS complication was carried out³⁸. The acute toxicity study as per OECD guidelines 423 revealed the drug to be safe till a dose of 2000 mg/kg. Adult Wistar albino rats (180-200 gm) of either sex were used for the study and subdivided into four (4) groups (n=6).

CONCLUSION:

The present paper revealed that the biological activities reported earlier justifies the traditional use of the plant in dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, verminosis, diarrhoea, leprosy, strangury, cough, asthma, fever, skin diseases, respiratory and cardiac disorders, ulcers and poisonous affections. The proximate composition and phytochemical composition such as crude fibre, carbohydrate, crude protein, crude fat etc. and caloric value of 303.9 wet weight support the medicinal use of the plant and in addition, it unveils the possibility of its acting as a potential source of food nutrients and nutraceuticals. The paper also reveals the fact that a lacuna is present the on biochemical studies of the root of the plant and it throws light towards the need of further studies in chemical analysis and biological activity studies on root of this species because the root forms the major ingredient in many of classical formulations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:

Authors are thankful to Director and Joint Director, Pharmacopoeia Commission for Indian Medicine and Homeopathy (PCIM&H), PLIM Campus, Ghaziabad for encouragement and motivation to write this review article.

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Received on 02.02.2016 Modified on 14.02.2016

Asian J. Research Chem. 9(3): Mar., 2016; Page 127-132

DOI: 10.5958/0974-4150.2016.00022.5


Solasodine (1): R= H		Solanidine (2): R = H
Solasonine(3): R=		Solanine (5): R =
Solamargine(4): R=
glc =glucose, gal =galactose, rha = rhamnose